mesoipotamia

http://www.realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Elam_Iran_2a.htm

 

"Sumer" is derived from the later Babylonian name for southern Babylonia, ("mät umeri"), the land of Sumer. The later Greeks, called it Mesopotamia: (mesos "middle" and potamos "river"), so "land between the rivers". The Sumerians themselves, called their country, "The Civilized land" and themselves "The Black Headed One's".

Other people of the area were known as Akkadians, they inhabited the land just north of Sumer. The Assyrians, inhabited the land just north of the Akkadians. Akkadians are known by that name because "Sargon the great" built a city called "Agade". Akkadians and Sumerians did not make a distinction between themselves. The name Babylonia, is taken from the minor Amorite town of Babilla. After the ascension of Hammurabi, it become the major city of the region. Therefore in historical writing, Mesopotamia and Babylonia, are commonly used to refer to the entire region.

The ancient country of Sumer was located in the southern part of the modern state of Iraq. In early times, Sumerians like Egyptians, were fastidious about cleanliness, and like the Egyptians, they were for the most part “Head Shavers”. However, unlike the Egyptians, they did not wear wigs to cover their shaved heads, they seem to have preferred wearing caps. It is not known if they also practiced circumcision, as did the Egyptians.

 

Sumer, society adhered to a class system comprised of three tiers: amelu, mushkinu, and slaves. The amelu were at the top rung of the class system. Nobles, government officials, professional soldiers, and priests were found in this class. Next were the mushkinu, the "middle class" of Sumerian society. These were the shopkeepers, farmers, merchants, and laborers. Slavery was an integral part of life in Sumer, and slaves were the lowest in the class system.

 

 

Enmerkar is the Ensi (city king), of Uruk and the ritual husband of the Great Goddess Inanna. Enmerkar has as his epithet "he who build Uruk", and he is known from two epic stories, Enmerkar and the Lord of Arratta, and Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana.

 

Cush (biblical son of Ham and grandson of Noah), fathered Nimrod, who was the first potentate on earth. Hence the saying, 'Like Nimrod a mighty hunter in the eyes of Yahweh'.

Biblically, the mainstays of Nimrods Empire were Babel, Erech and Akkad (Agade), all of them in the land of Shinar. Shinar is (biblical ancient Sumer), Akkad was the capital of the later Akkadian empire, (that city is still to be located). Biblical Erech is Uruk, and Babel, as we have seen, originally referred to Eridu.

Elam included more than Khuzestan, it was a combination of the lowlands, and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. The major cities of Elam were, Awan, Anshan, Simash, and Susa. Susa later became Elam's capital.

 

In earliest times the king lived in Susa, which functioned as the federal capital. With him ruled his brother closest in age (the viceroy), who usually had his seat of government in the native city of the currently ruling king. This viceroy was heir presumptive to the king. Yet a third official, the regent or prince of Susa (the district), shared power with the king and the viceroy. He was usually the kings son, or if no son was available, his nephew. On the death of the king, the viceroy became king. The prince of Susa remained in office, and the brother of the old viceroy nearest to him in age became the new viceroy. Only if all brothers were dead, was the prince of Susa promoted to viceroy, thus enabling the king to name his own son (or nephew), as the new prince of Susa.

 

Uruk-agina himself, was a usurper, The previous rulers of Lagash, especially the previous two usurpers installed by the priesthood, had terribly oppressed the people, both economically and militarily. There was excessive taxes on such occasions as weddings and funerals, and land was "bought" by government officials, at far below market value. He claimed to have been chosen by the god Ningirsu, to end the oppression of the poor. He destroyed much of the old bureaucracy. For the priests, he cut their income, and ended their influence. He created a near idyllic state, but in so doing, he weakened Lagash to the point where it could no longer defend itself, (not enough money was coming to the royal treasury). This weakness encouraged Lugal-zaggessi of Unug to attack.

Lugal-zaggesi

Lugal-zaggessi of Unug sacked Lagash, and burnt all of its holy temples. The priests of Lagash, who Uruk-agina had chastised, may have aided Lugal-zaggessi. Uruk-agina fled to the town of Girsu, which was a possession of Lagash, but did not seem to have fallen to Unug. Here he disappears from history. The documents proclaiming his reforms are the oldest in history, to speak of freedom.

After his victory, King Lugal-zaggesi offered a prayer.

May the lands lie peacefully in the meadows. May all mankind thrive like plants and herbs; may the sheepfolds of "An" increase; may the people of the Land look upon a fair earth; the good fortune which the gods have decreed for me, may they never alter; and unto eternity may I be the foremost shepherd.

 

 

1. Sargon, the mighty king, king of Akkadê am I,

2. My mother was lowly; my father I did not know;

3. The brother of my father dwelt in the mountain.

4. My city is Azupiranu, which is situated on the bank of the Purattu [Euphrates],

5. My lowly mother conceived me, in secret she brought me forth.

6. She placed me in a basket of reeds, she closed my entrance with bitumen,

7. She cast me upon the rivers which did not overflow me.

8. The river carried me, it brought me to Akki, the irrigator.

9. Akki, the irrigator, in the goodness of his heart lifted me out,

10. Akki, the irrigator, as his own son brought me up;

11. Akki, the irrigator, as his gardener appointed me.

12. When I was a gardener the goddess Ishtar loved me,

13. And for four years I ruled the kingdom.

14. The black-headed peoples I ruled, I governed;

15. Mighty mountains with axes of bronze I destroyed

 

 

Upon Sargons death, Rimush (2315-2306 B.C.), son of Sargon became king. Upon ascension he put down rebellions in Ur, Umma, Adab, Der, Lagash, and Kazallu in Sumer. Also Elam and Barakhshi in Iran, but he probably lost Syria. Palace intrigue led to his assassination, possibly by supporters of his brother Manishtusu. He was assassinated by having his head bashed in with a clay tablet.

Manishtusu  (2306-2291 B.C.) - Either Rimush's older brother or his twin. The power of the Empire continued to wane, Manishtusu had to put down a coalition of 32 rebel kings. Though he did lose some ground, he did retain control of Assyria and Sumer. He then invaded the Oman region and defeated the local kings there. Court documents record him buying land from private citizens, indicating that the Kings there were not absolute and they did not control all of the land. An inscription was found from the reign of the Assyrian king Shamshi-Adad I, that stated that Manishtushu founded the famous temple of Ishtar in Nineveh. Manishtusu died in a palace revolt.

Naram-Sin (2291 2254 B.C.), Son of Manishtushu became king. He defeated a rebel coalition in Sumer and re- established Akkadian power. Naram-Sin pushed the boundaries of the Empire to the Zagros mountains. He re-conquered Syria, the area now called Lebanon and the Taurus mountains, destroying Aleppo and Mari in the process. The Oman area revolted, and Naram-Sin had to invade and defeat their King Mandannu. He also invaded Anatolia as far as Dierbakir. He called himself the "King of the Four Quarters" and the "God of Agade", thus making himself the first Mesopotamian king to declare himself divine.

Naram-Sin appointed his daughters as Priestess' and sons as Governors. Even with all this military expansion, he still had to continually put down rebellions. In fact, the Lullubi, a people of the Sherizor plain in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran, successfully pushed out the Akkadians under their king Annubanin, just a short time after Naram-Sin had subjugated them.

The Gutians - a people from the mountains northeast of Sumer (modern Iran) - invaded at the end of Naram-Sin's reign, causing great destruction and the break down of communications.

 

One of the first cities that the Gutians take is Umma, a city in the eastern part of Sumer. Umma, which had experienced a resurgence in power during the rebellion against Agade, once again fell upon hard times. It was not until Umma submitted to Gutian rule did they begin to recover.

The "benign" subjection of Umma, probably prompted Ur-Bau, Ensi of Lagash, (a nearby city which also controlled the old capital of Ur - photo left), to establish a pro-Gutian government also. This move allowed Lagash to go unmolested by the Gutians and prosper.

Upon the death of Naram-Sin, his son Shar-Kali-Sharri (2254-2230 B.C.) became king. He tried to shore up the Empire and undo the damage caused by his father's policy's. Shar-Kali-Sharri fought well to preserve the realm and he won numerous battles, including one against the Amorites in Syria, but Elam declared independence and threw off the Akkadian language.

Shar-Kali-Sharri continually had to fight the Lullubi, Amorites, and Gutians. The Hurrians also contested with him for Assyria and northern Syria, Sumer then exploded in revolt. The Empire disintegrated under rebellion and invasion, he ended up ruling only the city of Agade. He is called the King of Agade, instead of earlier grandiose claims. He was killed in a palace revolt, his reign signaled the end of the Empire.

Of the Akkadian kings after Shar-kali-sharri, only the names and a few brief inscriptions have survived. Quarrels arose over the succession, and the dynasty went under, Two factors contributed to its downfall: the invasion of the nomadic Amurrus (Amorites), called "Martu" by the Sumerians, and the infiltration of the Gutians. According to the Sumerian king list, Sargons dynasty lasted 157 years. The last king of his dynasty was Car-kali-carri. Then there was a series of 11 other Akkadian kings who ruled for another 181 years.

 

when in Uruk, Utu-hegal (2133 B.C.) came to the throne. Utu-hegal succeeded in driving out the Gutians, when he defeated the Gutian king Tirigan (in 2130 B.C.). Utu-hegal's victory revived the political and economic life of Sumer. It was at this time that the Sumerian "King List" was inscribed. 

Upon the death of Utu-Hegal, one Ur-Nammu declared himself King. Ur-Nammu seized Uruk, and attacked and killed his competitor, Namhani of Lagash, whom he called "the traitor of Lagash". Ur-Nammu eventually ruled all of Sumer, and much of Assyria and Elam. Syria and Ebla paid tribute, and may well have been part of the Empire. Even Byblos (in Canaan), was forced to pay.

This was the beginning of Ur III, (because by the Sumerian king list, this is the third time that the kingship was taken by Ur). Ur-Nammu caused the coveted overseas trade from Dilmun (Indus Valley), Magan, and Meluha – Meluha means “black land”, the name of Egypt, so in all probability, the country that they are referring to is Egypt - to now flow through Ur, bringing great wealth to that city.

 

After Ur-Nammu died, his son Shulgi ascended the throne. By now the Gutians had overrun Elam, causing a greater state of anarchy there, than they had previously caused in Sumer. Shulgi wed his daughters to the rulers of Warshe and Anshan (Elamite cities). And then invaded and occupied Susa (the main Elamite city), he also installed a Sumerian governor there. Shulgi considered himself something of a poet.

King Shulgi (2100 B.C.) on the future of Sumerian literature:
"Now, I swear by the sun god Utu on this very day -- and my younger brothers shall be witness of it in foreign lands where the sons of Sumer are not known, where people do not have the use of paved roads, where they have no access to the written word -- that I, the firstborn son, am a fashioner of words, a composer of songs, a composer of words, and that they will recite my songs as heavenly writings, and that they will bow down before my words..."

He later had to put down an Elamite revolt in Anshan. After which, Elamites were recruited into the Sumerian army, (willingly or unwillingly). He later led an army into Canaan, to punish the locals there for not sending him tribute. He may have tried to emulate Naram-Sin (an earlier king), for he took the title "King of the Four Quarters", and had himself deified (declared a god). A praise poem of Shulgi: translation.

The king sailed to Unug towards the princely divine powers. Sumer and Akkad marvelled at him as he moored the boat at the quay of Kulaba. With a large wild bull of the mountains with uplifted horns, and with a sheep led by the hand of an en priest at his right side, with a dappled kid and a bearded kid clasped to his breast, he entered before Inana in the shrine of E-ana

The Amorites

Sumerian and Akkadian inscriptions of the latter part of the 3rd millennium B.C, refer to a people called (MAR.TU-Sumerian) or (Amurru-Akkadian), later called Amorite.

These seem to have been a nomadic desert people, who moved systematically in from the west. Their homeland was northwest of Sumer in the area stretching from the west bank of the Euphrates River on westward along the northern fringe of the Syrian Desert. The Sumerians called this land "Tidnum". From the early part of the second millennium B.C. onward, these people became more aggressive.

These Amorites were already well known to the Sumerians. They described them as, "people who know not grain and do not live in houses". These Amorite people, will come to have a great impact in Mesopotamia, and in Egypt - where they will become known as Habiru or Hebrew! Now back to our history.

By the time of Shulgi, the Amorites had become ever more aggressive until finally, there was open warfare and constant raids. This situation prompts Shulgi, to send his envoy Aradju, out into the country to visit his cities, and ensure their defenses and the loyalty of his governors.

However Aradju, and this particular High-Official "Apillaca", do not get along. In previous letters to Shulgi, Aradju has complained to Shulgi that Apillaca has not made him welcome, and has been disrespectful to him (Aradju). This is Shulgi's letter of reply.

 

Letter from Shulgi to Aradju about Apillaca
Say to Aradju: this is what Shulgi, your lord, says:

The man to whom I have sent you is not your subordinate -- he will not accept orders from your hand! How can you ignore what he himself has done too, and that it is indeed so?

As I myself ordered, you were to secure the provinces, and to correctly guide the people and secure the foundations of the provinces. When you approach the cities of the provinces, inform yourself precisely of their intentions, and inform yourself of the words of their dignitaries. Let my roar be emitted over all the lands. Let my powerful arm, my heroic arm, fall upon all the lands. Let my storm be released over the Land. Make the (Amorites?) disappear into the desert, and the robbers into the fields! Until you reach Apillaca, my 'Sage of the Assembly', (missing) Let (missing). That was how I had instructed you. Why have you not acted as I ordered you?

If I do not make my 'Sage of the Assembly' feel just as important as I am, if he does not sit on a throne on a dais, furnished with a high-quality cloth cover, if his feet do not rest on a golden footstool, if he is not allowed by his own highest authority both to appoint and then to remove a governor from his function as governor, an official from his charge, if he does not kill or blind anyone, if he does not elevate his favorite over others -- how else can he secure the provinces? If you truly love me, you will not bear him a grudge!

You are important, and you even know the soldiers that are at Apillaca's disposal. Your eyes have learnt something about Apillaca's men, and about Apillaca's heroism. If you, Aradju and Apillaca, are indeed my servants, you should both pay attention to my written communications. Come to an understanding, you two! Secure the foundations of the provinces! It is urgent

That very interesting letter, sums up the situation for king Shulgi, pretty well.

 

The main cities of Canaan were Jericho, Ugarit, Tyre, Sidon, Ebla, Biblos, Lachish, Hazor, Megiddo, Jerusalem

 

names of ancient origin, which evoke the name of El: Michael - he who is like God, Daniel - God is my judge, Gabriel - strong man of God, Gamaliel - benefit of God, Hazael - one that sees God, Emmanuel - God is with us, Ishmael - God will hear, Israel - God contented

 

In Egypt these Amorites had become known as Habiru or Hapiru (one who sells his services), whether these "services" were as Mercenaries or tradesman is unknown. In any event, the upheaval in Canaan naturally drew the attention of the Egyptian king. Egyptian troops were dispatched to Canaan in an attempt to eradicate the Habiru threat.

 

 

 

Mycenae

The Minoan's later expanded out onto the Greek mainland, (before 1,600). There they built a city named Mycenae, which was described as "broad-streeted and golden". Mycenae became the capital of a civilization that encompassed most of the Greek mainland and the Aegean Islands. The term Mycenaean is also sometimes used for the later civilizations of the Aegean area as a whole.

However, a problem arises because there has apparently been no serious attempts to differentiate between the Mycenaean civilization of the "ancients", and that part which might have existed after the Eurasian invasion. It is often said that Mycenae was created under Cretan influence, but what does that mean? Certainly it wasn't built by the Eurasians, at this time they were still in an uncivilized state.

Perhaps the answer lies in this excerpt from the myth of Danaus.

Danaus, or Danaos ("sleeper") was a Greek mythological character, twin brother of Aegyptus and son of Belus, a mythical king of Egypt. The myth of Danaus is a foundation legend (or re-foundation legend) of Argos, one of the foremost Mycenaean cities of the Peloponnesus. In Homer's Iliad, "Danaans" ("tribe of Danaus") and "Argives" commonly designate the Greek forces opposed to the Trojans.

Danaus had fifty daughters, the Danaides, and his twin brother, Aegyptus, had fifty sons. Aegyptus commanded that his sons marry the Danaides. Danaus elected to flee instead, and to that purpose he built a ship, the first ship that ever was. In it he fled to Argos, to which he was connected by his descent from Io, the maid wooed by Zeus and turned into a heifer and pursued by Hera until she found asylum in Egypt. So in a sense this was a homecoming for the sailor from Egypt. Argos at the time was ruled by King Pelasgus, the eponym of all autochthonous inhabitants who had lived in Greece since the beginning, also called there Gelanor (he who laughs). When Pausanias visited Argos in the 2nd century CE, he related the succession of Danaus to the throne, judged by the Argives, who "from the earliest times... have loved freedom and self-government, and they limited to the utmost the authority of their kings:"

"On coming to Argos he claimed the kingdom against Gelanor, the son of Sthenelas. Many plausible arguments were brought forward by both parties, and those of Sthenelas were considered as fair as those of his opponent; so the people, who were sitting in judgment, put off, they say, the decision to the following day. At dawn a wolf fell upon a herd of oxen that was pasturing before the wall, and attacked and fought with the bull that was the leader of the herd. It occurred to the Argives that Gelanor was like the bull and Danaus like the wolf, for as the wolf will not live with men, so Danaus up to that time had not lived with them. It was because the wolf overcame the bull that Danaus won the kingdom. Accordingly, believing that Apollo had brought the wolf on the herd, he founded a sanctuary of Apollo Lycius."

—Pausanias, Description of Greece, 2.19.3 - .4

 

When Aegyptus and his fifty sons arrived to take the Danaides, Danaus gave them, to spare the Argives the pain of a battle. However, he instructed his daughters to kill their husbands on their wedding night. Forty-nine followed through, but one, Hypermnestra (or Amymone, the "blameless" Danaid) refused because her husband, Lynceus, honored her wish to remain a virgin. Danaus was angry with his disobedient daughter and threw her to the Argive courts. Aphrodite intervened and saved her. (Lynceus later killed Danaus as revenge for the death of his brothers). Lynceus and Hypermnestra then began a dynasty of Argive kings (the Danaan Dynasty).

In some versions of the legend, the Danaides were punished in Tartarus by being forced to carry water through a jug with holes, or a sieve, so the water always leaked out.

The remaining forty-nine Danaides had their grooms chosen by a common mythic competition: a foot-race was held and the order in which the potential Argive grooms finished decided their brides (compare the myth of Atalanta).

Even a cautious reading of the subtext as a vehicle for legendary history suggests that a Pelasgian kingship in archaic Argos was overcome, not without violence, by seafarers out of Egypt (compare the Sea Peoples), whose leaders then intermarried with the local dynasty. The descendants of Danaus' "blameless" daughter Hypermnestra, through Danae, led to Perseus, founder of Mycenae, thus suggesting that Argos had a claim to be the metropolis, or "mother city" of Mycenae.

It has been suggested that the figure Danaus represents an actual Egyptian monarch, possibly identified with the pharaoh Akhenaton (as accounted by the ancient Greco-egyptian, Manetho). Furthering the parallel, the character of Aegyptus bears similarities with the pharaoh Ay. This leads some to believe that the Aegyptiads were an Egyptian army that was sent by Ay and Ammonian priests to punish Akhenaton and Atenists, and, following from this presumption, that the Danaids were Egyptians who followed Akenaton to Greece after his escape from Egypt.

Another Danaus, possibly the same as the one above, had three daughters, Ialysa, Kamira and Linda, who were worshipped on Rhodes, where he stopped and founded a sanctuary to Athena on the way from Egypt to Greece. The Sphinx Oedipus became king of the Kadmeans (Thebes) when he answered the Sphinx’ riddle.

o then, perhaps the answer is that the building of Mycenae was a joint venture between the Minoans and Egypt.

According to another "Eurasian" legend, Mycenae was the capital of Agamemnon, the "Achaean" king who sacked the city of Troy. In Greek Mythology the Achaeans are part of the "Hellenes" (the Eurasian tribe that invaded Greece), which consisted of the Aeolians, Dorians, Ionians, and Achaeans. These tribes are traditionally descended from, and named for, Hellen's sons, Aeolus and Dorus, and his grandsons, Ion and Achaeus.

In Eurasian Greek legend, Hellen was the king of Phthia (a city on the Gulf of Euboea) and grandson of the god Prometheus; he was the eponymous ancestor of all true Greeks, called Hellenes in his honor. They called themselves Hellenes, and Hellas is their name for Greece, so where did the name "Greece" come from?

Anyway, in the case of Agamemnon, we have another problem. The fall of Troy, a city in Anatolia (Turkey), came in the same time-frame as the exodus of the "Sea People". Making it unlikely that the Eurasians could have acquired the necessary means to defeat the powerful and distant city of Troy. So either Agamemnon was not a Hellen, or he didn't do it.

As you may have noticed, we have gotten ahead of ourselves, we haven't even gotten to the Eurasian invasion yet. Time to move on!

 

The old kingdom

back in Egypt Netjerikhet Djoser (Zoser), the second King of Egypt's 3rd Dynasty, and his grand vizier and architect "Imhotep" set about to build the first Monumental stone structure ever created, the Step Pyramid.

Herodotus, (who wrote his histories and commentaries on Egypt around 450 B.C, centuries after Khufu had reigned around 2585 B.C.), recorded this about the King:

"Kheops brought the country into all kinds of misery. He closed the temples, forbade his subjects to offer sacrifices, and compelled them without exception to labor upon his works. The Egyptians can hardly bring themselves to mention Kheops so great is their hatred." It was even said that Khufu sent one of his daughters into a brothel so that she could raise revenue to build the pyramid, also asking each client for a block of stone so she could build her own pyramid. No evidence exists for such a story, though there are smaller pyramids, which probably belonged to the half-sister/wives of Khufu, and he did have at least three daughters of record.

he beginning of the 6th dynasty, that the groundwork is laid for the problems to come. There was apparently accession problems following the death of King Unas, last king of the 5th dynasty. It is believed that Teti, 1st. king of the 6th. dynasty, secured his position by marrying one of king Unas's daughters "Iput I". The length of Teti's reign is sometimes given as 13 years and other sources list it as 33 years. In any event, according to the Manetho, the king was murdered by his guards for mysterious reasons.

The accession of his son Pepi, seems to have been held up by a usurper named Userkare. His reign was short-live however, and Pepi ascended the throne after about one year. When Pepi ascended the throne he was still quite young and his mother Iput I, may have acted as his regent, he reigned for about 50 years. In about year 42 of his reign, there was apparently a harem conspiracy against his life, by one of his queens named "Were-Imtes". Some say that it was not one of his queens behind the plot, but rather the mother of the usurper Userkare. In any event the plot was uncovered, and the plotters punished.

 

During Pepi's reign, there was apparently many disturbances in Canaan. Five campaigns are attested to by this inscription in the tomb of Weni the Elder.

His majesty sent me to lead this army 5 times to subdue the land of the Sand Dwellers, every time they rebelled, with these troops. I acted so that his majesty praised me for it. Told that there were rebels amongst these foreigners at the 'Nose-of-the-Gazelle's-head' I crossed in ships, together with these troops. I put to land at the back of the height of the mountain range to the north of the land of the Sand-Dwellers, while (the other) half of this army were traveling by land. I turned back, I obstructed all of them and slew every rebel amongst them.

 

Upon his death, Pepi I was succeeded by his eldest son Merenre I, who died unexpectedly. He was succeeded by his younger half brother, Pepi II. His reign of possibly 94, (some Egyptologist believe 64), years was the longest in ancient Egyptian history. He seems to have come to the throne at about the age of six, and would therefore have lived until the age of one hundred.

Pepi II maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with Canaan, and made several trips and campaigns south to pacify Nubia. There were also many trading expeditions into central and east Africa.

Upon his death Pepi II may have been succeeded by a son named Merenre II, but perhaps for only one year. According to Manetho, he was married to a Queen Nitocris, who succeeded her husband to become the last ruler of the 6th Dynasty. However, very little archaeological evidence of Merenre II, or Nitocris exists.

 

The Turin Papyrus places 'Nitocris' after Pepi II and possibly Merenre II and an unknown pharaoh towards the end of the 6th dynasty. This 'Nitocris' is also mentioned by both Herodotus and Manetho as a queen, but cannot be identified with any historical pharaoh. These events reported by Herodotus cannot be verified and may be fanciful.

 Herodotus:

The name of the woman who reigned was the same as that of the Babylonian queen, namely Nitocris.
Of her, they said that desiring to take vengeance for her brother, whom the Egyptians had slain when he was their king and then, after having slain him, had given his kingdom to her,--desiring I say, to take vengeance for him, she destroyed by craft many of the Egyptians. For she caused to be constructed a very large chamber under ground, and making as though she would inhabit it but in her mind devising other things, she invited those of the Egyptians whom she knew to have had most part in the murder of her brother, and gave a great banquet. Then while they were feasting, she let in the river upon them by a secret conduit of large size.

Of her they told no more than this, except that, when this had been accomplished, she threw herself into a room full of embers, in order that she might escape vengeance.

The First Intermediate Period

It is always the case, that when there is a king of extraordinary length of reign, the result will be weak kings to follow and eventually chaos. The demise of the 6th dynasty, because of dissension and weak kings, marks the onset of what is called, the First Intermediate Period. These intermediate periods, are times when Egypt is not a united country, but rather independent cities or regions. In these periods, the term dynasty is assigned to the kingship lines that have the most power, or sometimes to a group of disparate rulers.

The end of the Old Kingdom brought on a period of chaos, bloodshed and anarchy. Resulting from the collapse of the monarchy, and the rivalries of the provincial feudal lords or 'nomarchs'.

This situation may also have been fomented by Asiatic's, who had infiltrated into the Delta (northern Egypt). From the beginning, Egyptian kings had gone into Canaan to subdue people who they variously called, Troglodytes, San dwellers or vile Asiatic's. It appears that at this time, these people are making a concerted effort to breed dissension in Egypt. However in this case, it is unclear if these mischief-makers are native Canaanite's or Amorites from the desert.

Things continued this way throughout the Seventh Dynasty (2181-2173 B.C.). During this brief period, over 70 rulers were said to have laid claim to the throne of Egypt. The Eighth Dynasty (2173-2160 B.C.), followed the same pattern. Civil disorders multiplied, and then a drought struck Egypt. Valuable insight into this period can be gleaned from a papyrus in the Leyden collection, called "Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage". Excerpts from the papyrus follows..

Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage

The bowman is ready. The wrongdoer is everywhere. There is no man of yesterday. A man goes out to plow with his shield. A man smites his brother, his mother's son. Men sit in the bushes until the benighted traveler comes, in order to plunder his load. The robber is a possessor of riches. Boxes of ebony are broken up. Precious acacia-wood is left asunder.

{The general upheaval has reversed the status of rich and poor:}  

He who possessed no property is now a man of wealth. The poor man is full of joy. Every town says: let us suppress the powerful among us. He who had no yoke of oxen is now the possessor of a herd. The possessors of robes are now in rags. Gold and lapis lazuli, silver and turquoise are fastened on the necks of female slaves. All female slaves are free with their tongues. When their mistress speaks it is irksome to the servants. The children of princes are dashed against the walls.

Out of the turmoil and weak Kingships, principalities within the realm rose up to challenge the authority of these weak kings. One Achthoes, the ruler of Heracleopolis, seized control of Middle Egypt, and founded the Ninth Dynasty of lower Egypt (2160-2130 B.C.).

These kings of Heracleopolis maintained control over lower (northern) Egypt, through the Tenth Dynasty (2130-2040 B.C.). Meanwhile, the rulers of Edfu and Thebes, fought over control of Upper Egypt. The battle over Upper Egypt was won by Thebes and its ruler Inyotef Sehertowy, founded the Eleventh Dynasty (2133 B.C.), with the aim of extending his power over all the land. There ensued a north-south battle for control of Egypt, which ended with the victory of Nebhepetre Mentuhope II, who re-united the country under one king, and launched the period known as the Middle Kingdom.

 

 

 

The Middle Kingdom

Montuhotep II was king for about 50 years, though much of his reign involved military campaigns, some building work was done. His greatest building work however, was his own temple and tomb, located on the west bank at Thebes. It is located in the cliffs at Deir el-Bhari, next to the famous temple of Queen Hatshepsut.

 

Rebuilding from the second intermediate period, was only begun in earnest by his son and successor, Montuhotep III. He demonstrated a preference for the arts as well as building. He also reopened trade with the Red Sea region.

But it was Amenemhet I, the first ruler of the 12th Dynasty, (who may have been a usurper), that some Egyptologists credit with the full recovery from the First Intermediate Period and the transition into the Middle Kingdom. Which was a period of great prosperity.

Amenemhet I appears to have been a wise leader, he set about to correct the problems of the First Intermediate Period, and he took steps to protect Egypt's boarders from invasion and to assure a legitimate succession, {he was the first king to establish a co-regency with his son, Senusret I}. Yet he was murdered in an apparent harem plot, while his co-regent was leading a campaign in Libya. We find two literary works, the Tale of Sinuhe, and the Instructions of Amenemhet I, reflecting this king's tragic end. One literary work from the time of his son Senusret I, presents the account of Amenemhet I's murder, supposedly provided by the king himself from beyond the grave:

It was after supper, when night had fallen, and I had spent an hour of happiness. I was asleep upon my bed, having become weary, and my heart had begun to follow sleep. When weapons of my counsel were wielded, I had become like a snake of the necropolis. As I came to, I awoke to fighting, and found that it was an attack of the bodyguard. If I had quickly taken weapons in my hand, I would have made the wretches retreat with a charge! But there is none mighty in the night, none who can fight alone; no success will come without a helper. Look, my injury happened while I was without you, when the entourage had not yet heard that I would hand over to you when I had not yet sat with you, that I might make counsels for you; for I did not plan it, I did not foresee it, and my heart had not taken thought of the negligence of servants.

Apparently, his foresight in creating the co-regency with his son proved successful, for Senusret I, succeeded his father, and there seems to have been little or no disruption in the administration of the country.

menemhet II, grandson of Amenemhet I, continued the recovery by reestablishing Egypt's prominence in foreign affairs and trade. Recovered artifacts attest that he exchanged gifts with other rulers in the Mediterranean region. We find jewelry inscribed with his name in royal tombs at Byblos in Canaan. Bronze boxes found at the temple of Montu at Tod inscribed with his name, contained a large number of silver cups of Aegean origin. Also found were cylinder seals and lapis Lazuli amulets from Mesopotamia. In addition, Egyptian artifacts from this period has been found in Crete at Knossos, and Minoan pottery, called Kamares ware, has been found in a tomb at Abydos in Egypt.

 

 

 

Armenians called themselves "The Hayk", and may have been from the Indus Valley - more on them later. The Hurri were yet another people, their territory extended into eastern Anatolia. Later these Hurri, who originated in northern Elam, united into a nation called Mitanni.

 

Hittite empire, is really a confusion with that of the Hattians, Phrygians, Chaldeans, Babylonians.

 

The Amorite Invasion

After Shulgi died, his son Shu-Sin (2038 B.C.), became king, he also had himself deified. More wars were fought with the Amorites. Shu-Sin lost Assyria and erected a huge wall between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, just north of Babilla, to help keep out the Amorites. The wall was 170 miles long, and breached the banks of both rivers. He also campaigned in the Zagros mountains and defeated a coalition of local tribes there. He had extensive trade relations with the Indus Valley and elsewhere. Later he had to build additional walls around the cities of Ur and Nippur, to protect against the Amorites.

It was later, during the reign of Ibbi-Sin, the fifth ruler of Ur III, that raiders from the Mardu tribe (Amorites), finally broke through the walls. This resulted in widespread panic, and a general breakdown in communications throughout the Empire. Even before that, Ibbi-Sin's situation was insecure and even pathetic at times, throughout much of his reign. With this Amorite attack, the realm began to disintegrate almost immediately. Much of the time Ibbi-Sin was left confined to his capital city of Ur.

The Elamite city of Eshnunna, broke away in 2028 B.C, and the rest of Elam the next year. The Ensi's of most of his cities deserted him, and fended for themselves against the Amorites, who were ravaging Sumer. Seeing this, one of Ibbi-Sin's generals, Ishbi-Erra, rebelled and was given rule over the city of Isin, in an attempt to placate him.

The Elamite Invasion

These calamities prompted Elam, which had earlier been invaded by Ibbi-Sin, to resume hostilities. Ur came under attack from both Elam, and the Mardu (Amorites). Ur was besieged, taken, and utterly destroyed by the invading Elamites and their allies among the Iranian tribes. (It is not known what part the Mardu in the northwest, played in the final battles). King Ibbi-Sin was led away captive, and no more was ever heard of him.

Hammurabi

As time goes on, ever more wars are fought. Then in the previously unimportant Amorite city of Babilla, (later called Babylon), in the northern part of Sumer, One "Hammurabi" became's king. When Hammurabi succeeded his father, "Sin-muballit" as king of Babylon in 1792 B.C, he was still young. But as was customary in Mesopotamian royal courts of the time, he probably already had been entrusted with some official duties in the administration of the city.

So when he became king, he was ready to hit the ground running. He spent the next 29 years building coalitions and conquering other cities and territories, thereby building Babylon into a powerful state. The next 20 years were a time of relative calm. But the last 14 years of his life were spent in almost constant warfare.

It should be understood that Amorite rule in Sumer, was not the result of invasion and conquest, but rather, the result of coalition building and conquest, as attested to by this excerpt of a letter found in Mari.

“There is no king who is powerful for himself: with Hammurabi, ‘the man of Babylon,' go 10 or 15 kings, so with Rim-Sin, ‘the man of Larsa'; with Ibalpiel, ‘the man of Eshunna,' go 20 kings.”

Samsuiluna, the son of Hammurabi, took control even before the death of his father, who had a long illness. But an outburst of revolts followed the death of Hammurapi, and this led to the disintegration of the Amorite Empire. Although he fought vigorously, Samsuiluna lost all but Babylonia proper, but Babylon still had some power.

It appears that whatever arrangements and coalitions Hammurabi had made which allowed for Amorite rule, also died with him. For the Sumerians, revolt was in order, not only because of their ancient tradition of independence, but also because of the heavy-handedness of Babylon's policy's and the economic drain on the people.

Soon after, Samsuiluna also had to fight an adventurer who called himself Rim-Sin II of Larsa - for five years. Most of this fighting took place on the Elam/Sumer border, finally Rim-Sin II was captured and executed. The Elamite city of Eshnunna had sided with him, and so it's ruler "Anni" was also captured and strangled in Babylon.

During this war, Samsuiluna had pulled down the walls of Ur, set fire to the temples and partially destroyed the city. He did the same to Uruk. It's assumed that these cities also had sided with Rim-Sin II. Once again Elam, upon seeing weakness, invaded and sacked the two of them, taking away a statue of Inanna from Uruk.

A few years later (1732 B.C.), One Iluma-Ilu - pretending to be a descendent of Damiq-Ilishu, the last King of Isin, took the throne of Isin and declared independence. He ultimately gained the freedom of Sumer south of Nippur, and founded the Dynasty of the “Sealand” (the southern region of Sumer). Also called Chaldea, (see; biblical Ur of the Chaldees).

At about this same time, The Assyrians rebelled and gained their independence.

In 1715 B.C. Samsuiluna crushed an invading Kassite army. After his death, his son Abieshu defeated another Kassite attack, but allowed the peaceful settling of Kassites in Babylonia as agricultural workers. He also dammed the Tigris in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Iluma-Ilu, who had fled to the swamps. After Samsuiluna's death, four more Amorite kings ruled.

The last of them, Samsuditana (1625-1595 B.C.) was overthrown when the Hittites(?) from Anatolia, under their king "Mursilis I" sacked Babylon.

 

 

"Neferusobek", she was the eighth ruler of the 12th Dynasty ( 1763-1759 B.C.), it was over. The scenario went like this: It seems that "Amenemhet IV" The seventh king of the 12th Dynasty, (who was probably the son of Amenemhet III, the 6th. king), was old when he assumed the throne, due to his father Amenemhet III's long reign.

He had no male heir, so it seems that a family feud broke out, from which Sebeknofru (his sister), emerged the winner. The exact nature of her reign is unknown, however this would be the second time in Egyptian history that a woman succeeded in establishing herself as 'King of Upper and Lower Egypt'. This was so abnormal a situation, that it had to once again bring disaster. After Sebeknofru, (as after Queen Nitocris of the 6th dynasty), there followed a succession of kings none of whose reigns exceeded three years. For Whatever cause, the glorious Middle Kingdom had finally broken down.

The Second Intermediate Period

There had been a big building boom in Egypt during the 12th dynasty. Many temples were built and much other construction work was done. This created a need for more workers, and many of the workers that answered the call, were the highly skilled workers of Mesopotamia. Prominent among these, would be the Amorites, (who are now out of work). They are known in Egypt as "Hapiru" (one who sells his services), this word Hapiru will later become "Hebrew". The large-scale immigration of these foreigners into the Nile Valley during the Middle Kingdom, eventually spelled the end of the Middle Kingdom in Egypt.

 

The Hyksos

"Hyksos" took northern Egypt, but took it they did. The middle and last part of the Second Intermediate Period (15th-17th dynastys) saw northern Egypt ruled by these foreign kings for hundreds of years.

During this time, Egypt was never under the control of a single monarch, but consisted largely of independent states under a variety of kings. The Egyptians called the foreign kings of northern Egypt - Heka-Khaswt - there is argument as to whether this translates to "Shepherd Kings" or "Rulers of the Foreign Lands." The Greeks later perverted this word to Hyksos. It might be of interest to note that in Sumer, the king was known in their hymns and poems as "the good Shepherd".

This second intermediate period, lasted for hundreds of years, until king "Tao" of Thebes took to battle in order to re-unify Egypt. After he fell in battle, his son Kamose carried on. King Kamose's throne name, Wadj-kheper-re means: "Flourishing is the Manifestation of Re". As Kamose picked up the battle-axe from his father, in the war against the Hyksos, he tried to motivate the Egyptian people to break the status quo, but it was a hard task, their fighting spirit wasn't high. The Hyksos had apparently been good neighbors, they had incorporated Egyptian gods into their religious pantheon, and had many commercial agreements with Egyptians in upper Egypt. They were people who had lived in Egypt for hundreds of years, and aside from their desire to build their nation with the Pharaohs land, were in all other ways tolerable.

In order to hold-off the oncoming Egyptian army, the old Hyksos king, "Apepi I" tried to make an alliance with the Nubians (people south of Egypt), and engage King Kamose in a two-front war, but it didn't work out as planned. Instead the Nubians joined forces with Kamose and headed north to expel the Hyksos. However, all Egyptians did not support expulsion of the Hyksos, and these people were treated as traitors.

The Hyksos Expulsion

As the battles raged, the Hyksos were eventually forced to barricade themselves in their city of Avaris. Here they were besieged, but managed to hold out. Kamose, not wishing to maintain a protracted siege, offered a compromise. Whereby if the Hyksos would leave peacefully, they could take all of their possessions and receive safe conduct out of Egypt. This the Hyksos accepted, and they gathered up all of their possessions, (and all of the Egyptians possessions that they could), and left Egypt.

Finally the Hyksos were expelled, (they went into Canaan - Biblical Exodus?). Subsequently though, a rebellion by unhappy quarry workers, encouraged the Hyksos to return to Egypt.

"Those sent to work in the quarries lived miserably for a long while, and the king was asked to set apart the city Avaris, which the Hyksos had left, for their habitation and protection; and he granted them their wish.

But when these men had entered it, and found it suitable for a revolt, they chose a ruler from among the priests of Heliopolis, whose name was Osarsiph (Moses). They swore an oath that they would obey him in all things. The first laws he gave them were that they should not worship the Egyptian gods, nor should they abstain from any of the sacred animals that the Egyptians held in the highest esteem, but could kill them, and that they should not ally themselves to any but those that were of their conspiracy.

After making such laws as these, and others contrary to Egyptian customs, he ordered that the many hands at their service to be employed in building walls around the city and prepare for a war with king Ahmose. He colluded with the other priests, and those that were polluted as well, (apparently many of the quarry workers were Lepers), and sent ambassadors to those Hyksos expelled by Kamose to Jerusalem, informing them of his own affairs, and of the state of those others that had been treated so shamefully, and desired that they would come united to his assistance in this war against Egypt.

He also promised their return to their ancient city and land of Avaris, and plentiful support for their people; that he would protect them and fight for them if need be, and that the land would easily be subdued. The Hyksos were delighted with his message, and assembled two hundred thousand men. Shortly they arrived at Avaris.

This account goes on to tell of the Pharaohs sojourn to Nubia and his return 13 years later.

In any event, by now it was the reign of Kamose's son "Ahmose I",  and he offered no compromise. On his stella, Ahmose I proclaims that he chased the Hyksos out of Egypt, and as far east as the Euphrates river.

The Egyptian historian "Manetho" (305–282 B.C.), writes about this expulsion: "And it was also reported that the priest, who ordained their polity and their laws, was by birth of Heliopolis, and his name was Osarsiph from Osyris, who was the god of Heliopolis; but that when he was gone over to these people, his name was changed, and he was called Moses".

Kamose's son, "Ahmose I" probably became ruler of Egypt around 1550 B.C. He was about the age of 10 when he came to the throne, and he ruled for a period of about 25 years.

the Canaanites were being squeezed out by new Amorite invaders. Now more pressure was being put on the Canaanites by another group of Amorites, this group had just been expelled from Egypt, where they were known as the Hyksos. These Amorites/Hebrews settled in Canaan also.

Hebrew numbers had already been greatly increased by the second wave of semi-nomadic Hebrew tribes. And also by many settled Canaanites, (i.e, the Gibeonites), who joined the invaders against their city dwelling neighbors. Now with the addition of these new Hyksos, who by virtue of their experiences in Sumer and Egypt, were educated and highly skilled, the Hebrews could now begin to build a country. Wars raged and cities were destroyed.

The Hebrews began building amid the ruins of the cities that they had destroyed, and new settlements sprang up rapidly all through the hill country. The first Hebrew king was selected by the prophet Samuel, a prophet of great influence and authority. Samuel is depicted in various biblical accounts, as either favoring or not favoring the reign of a human king over Israel. In any case, he anointed Saul, a courageous military leader of the tribe of Benjamin, as the first king - in about 1020 B.C. It is not clear if Samuel consulted with others, such as an assembly, before making this appointment.

The Sea People

As a consequence of these wars, there would be a general collapse of the indigenous economies, and their trade. But whatever the cause, this general collapse prompted some members, of seemingly all of the countries, to band together and head East and South, perhaps to re-populate their former homelands. This confederation of the people of the Mediterranean countries, became known as "The Sea People". Among this group called the Sea People, were the following.

The Peleset and Tjeker (Minoans) of Crete, they would later be known as the “Philistines” after they had settled in Southern Canaan. Over time, this area became known by a form of their name “Palestine”. The Lukka who may have come from the Lycian region of Anatolia, The Ekwesh and Denen who seem to be identified with the original (Black) Greeks, The Shardana (Sherden) who may be associated with Sardinia, The Teresh (Tursha or Tyrshenoi), the Tyrrhenians - the Greek name for the Etruscans, and The  Shekelesh (Sicilians?). The fate of those that stayed behind, would of course be absorption.

 

The New Kingdom

It was with pharaoh Amenhotep III, the ninth king of the 18th dynasty. Who ruled Egypt for almost 40 years, that Egypt had one of its most prosperous and stable periods. However, the groundwork for this period of prosperity had been earlier laid by Amenhotep III's grandfather Tuthmosis III, who had earlier conquered Egypt's Canaanite, Nubian and Libyan neighbors.

So Egypt went on, through the eighteenth dynasty and it's many kings. Through the nineteenth dynasty, but it is with the last ruler of the nineteenth dynasty Queen Tausert, that the trouble begins. She was one of the few queens who ruled Egypt (about 1187 B.C.). Her birth name appears to have been Two-sret (setep-en-mut) which means "Mighty Lady, Chosen of Mut". Her Throne name was Sit-re Mery-amun which means "Daughter of Re, Beloved of Amun". She had been the wife of Seti II, but apparently did not supply him with a heir. So upon his death, his young son Siptah by a Canaanite wife ascended the throne, with Tausert as his regent. When Siptah died six years later, Tausert declared herself king. But upon the death of Tausert, it was a free-for-all for the throne. The exact nature of this turmoil is unknown. But we do know that it was Setnakhte, who ended the confusion and reestablished order. Setnakhte became the first king of the 20th dynasty.

 

Ramesses III, was the second ruler of Egypt's 20th Dynasty. Ramesses father Setnakhte, may have been related to Ramesses II (Ramesses the great). But in any case, Ramesses III is considered to be the last of the great pharaohs. His reign was during a time of considerable turmoil throughout the Mediterranean. This was the time of the Trojan War, the fall of Mycenae and a great surge of displaced people from all over the region reeking havoc, and even toppling some empires. It is in the eight year of the reign of Ramesses III, that the Sea People attack Egypt.

 

Invasion of the Sea Peoples, inscription on mortuary temple of Rameses III, Medinet Habu, Egypt

"The foreign countries conspired in their islands, and the lands were dislodged and scattered in battle together; no land could stand before their arms: the land of the Hittites, Qode, Carchemesh, Arzawa and Cyprus were wasted, and they set up a camp in (what is now) southern Syria. They desolated its people and made its land as if non-existent. They bore fore before them as they came forward towards Egypt."

 

On they came with fire prepared at their front, faces towards Egypt. Their main protection was the Pelset, the Tjekru, the Shekelesh, the Da'anu, the Washosh and all the lands united. They laid their hands on countries as afar as the circuit of the earth.

After having stayed for a time in Anatolia, the Sea People apparently traveled over land to the Egyptian border. The Sea People had with them their women and children, together with their possessions piled high on ox-carts, it is clear that they were looking for a new home. They also employed a sea fleet that apparently stayed in contract with those on land. Ramesses dispatched squads of soldiers at once to the eastern Egyptian frontier at Djahy, (southern Canaan, perhaps the Egyptian garrison in the Gaza strip), with orders to stand firm at any cost until the main Egyptian army arrived.

Once deployed, the Egyptian army then had little trouble in slaying these enemies. However, there was still the sea fleet to consider, as the Sea Peoples fleet headed for the mouth of one of the eastern arms of the Nile, they were met by the Egyptian fleet. In a brilliant tactical maneuver, the Egyptian fleet worked the Sea Peoples' boats towards shore, where land based Egyptian archers were waiting to pour volley after volley of arrows into the enemy ships, while at the same time, Egyptian marine archers, standing on the decks of their ships, also fired in unison. Thus, Ramesses III defeats the Sea people and they are turned away.

 

Three years later, Libyans together with the Meshwesh and five other tribes from the west, launched a full scale invasion of lower Egypt, during Ramesses eleventh year as ruler. Once again, Ramesses III counter attacked, crushing these opponents as well.

At some point during the latter part of Ramesses III's reign, there were economic problems, these problems became evident when the Deir el-Medina workmen failed to be paid. This lead to a general strike, the first in recorded history, in the 29th year of the king's reign.

Against this background was hatched a plot against the king's life by one of his many Queens, "one Queen Tiy". She apparently wished for her son, called Pentewere, to ascend the throne of Egypt. Her's was no simple conspiracy, considering that at least 40 people were implicated and tried as a group. Amongst their numbers were harem officials, many of whom were close to the king. Apparently not only had they intended to kill the king, but also to incite a revolt outside of the palace in order to facilitate their coup. The plot was seemingly hatched in Piramesses, where one of the conspirators had a house. The plan called for the murder of the king during the annual Opet Festival at Thebes. Preparations for this included magical spells and wax figurines, which were smuggled into the harem. This conspiracy is thought to have failed, and the culprits were charged and brought before a court consisting of a panel of fourteen officials. These included seven royal butlers, two treasury overseers, two army standard bearers, two scribes and a herald.

Ramesses III himself, most likely commissioned the prosecution, but according to the language of the papyrus, probably died during the trial, though not necessarily from the effects of the plot. Curiously, this court was given authority to deliver and carry out whatever penalty they deemed fair, including the death penalty, which normally only the king could inflict. It should be noted however, that scholars are in disagreement over the events of this conspiracy. Some maintain that Ramesses III was in fact killed by the conspirators, and that his son, Ramesses IV, set up the tribunal, but others maintain that the mummy of the king shows no acts of violence.

All of those involved in the plot were apparently condemned to death, as was certainly the fate of Queen Tiy herself. Though the record of the actual trial is lost, there were apparently three different prosecutions. The first consisted of twenty eight people, who included the major ringleaders. They were found guilty, and almost certainly put to death. In the next prosecution six people were condemned, and forced to commit suicide within the court itself. In the final trial, four additional individuals, including the son of Queen Tiy, were likewise condemned to suicide, though they were presumably allowed to carry out the act in their prison.

 

Among these invaders from southern Europe, were the Tjeker (Minoan's) of Crete and Greece, who would become known as the Philistines. They settled in the southern coastal plain of Canaan. Within a 150 years after their settlement, they would conquer much of the region.

Saul however, won substantial victories over the Philistines, Ammonites, and Amalekites, and for a time the Philistine advance was stopped. But Saul and his son Jonathan, were killed in a disastrous battle with the Philistines in central Palestine. Saul's successor David, a former aide (and also his son-in-law) who had previously fallen out of favor with him. At first took over only the rule of Judah in the south (1010 B.C.) and then all of Israel by (1000 B.C.).

 

 

 

 

Through his superior military and administrative abilities, and political acumen, David was able to established unified rule over all of Israel. He cleared the territory of Philistines, and in the absence of any competing foreign power in the area, created his own petty empire over neighboring city-states and peoples. He established his capital in Jerusalem, which until then, had maintained its independence as a Canaanite city: wedged as it were, between the territories of Saul's Benjamin tribe and David's Judah tribe.

Meanwhile, three other peoples were settling east of the Jordan River: the Edomites in the south, the Moabites east of the Dead Sea, and the Ammonites on the edge of the Syrian Desert, east of Gilead. These people were considered by the Hebrews, to be fellow Hebrews (Amorites). They had begun to establish settled communities, even before the Hebrew invasion of Canaan. but they did not accept the Hebrew religion and remained polytheists.

The Kassites

Earlier, the Kassites had migrated into the northwestern part of Elam, (more Indus Valley refuges?). By 1800 B.C, they had begun a westward movement toward Mesopotamia from Elam. They at first tried making war, but after their defeats by Samsuiluna and Abieshu, they instead quietly filtered into Mesopotamia, and established their own towns and principalities. With the fall of the amorite dynasty of Hammurabi, they found their opening and were able to gradually take over the whole of mesopotamia. It was the Kassite king Ulamburiash, who later campaigned in the south, and finally defeated the Sumerian princes in the Sea Land (chaldea) in 1450 B.C.

The Assyrians

Lets pause now to introduce the Assyrians - The Assyrians were a people who lived in the northern-most part of Mesopotamia. All through their history, they had tried to establish their own kingdom. And each time they tried, they were beaten down by one of their stronger neighbors, or even some new invader. During the Amorite dynasty of Hammurabi, they had been brutally repressed. So when Hammurabi's dynasty collapsed, they rebelled and declared independence. But they didn't stop there, after they had finally succeeded in establishing their own kingdom. They then went on a campaign of conquest and expansion with cruelty that was until then unknown.

Kassite King "Kurigalzu II" fought several wars against the Assyrians, but was defeated by them. After his death, his successors sought to ally themselves with the Hittites in order to stop the expansion of the Assyrians. During the reign of Kassite king Kashtiliash IV (1232- 1225), Babylonia waged war on two fronts at the same time—against Elam and Assyria—it ended in the catastrophic invasion and destruction of Babylon by Assyrian king "Tukulti-Ninurta I".

It was not until the time of king Adad-shum-usur (1216-1187) that Babylon was again, able to experience a period of peace and prosperity.

 

But his Kassite successors were again forced to fight, this time facing the conqueror King Shutruk-Nahunte of Elam. The Elamites finally destroyed the dynasty of the Kassites during these wars.

Nebuchadrezzar I

Meanwhile, in a series of heavy wars, about which not much is known, one "Marduk-kabit-ahheshu" (1152-1135 B.C.), established what came to be known as the 2nd dynasty of Isin. However, he and his successors were often forced to continue the fighting against the Elamites. The most famous king of this Isin dynasty was Nebuchadrezzar I (1119-1098 B.C.). He fought mainly against Elam, which had conquered and ravaged a large part of Babylonia. His first major attack against Elam miscarried because of an epidemic among his troops, but in a later campaign, he conquered Susa the capital of Elam. Soon thereafter the king of Elam was assassinated, and his kingdom once again, fell apart into small states. After "Nebuchadrezzar I" died, he was succeeded by his brother Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1093-1076). He was at first successful in wars against Assyria, but he later experienced heavy defeat.

The Aramaeans

Then a famine of catastrophic proportions triggered an attack from Aramaean tribes, (Aramaean is the name given to the confederation of Amorite tribes which had evolved, perhaps as a result of the Hyksos expulsion, to form a country called Aram). His successors made peace with Assyria, but the country suffered more and more from repeated attacks by Aramaeans and semitic nomads. Even though some of these Isin kings still assumed grand titles, they were unable to stem the progressive disintegration of their empire.

Chaldea - The Sealand

It was at this time of chaos and confusion, that the Sumerian Princes in the south re-asserted their independence. There followed the era known as the 2nd dynasty of the Sealand (or Chaldea, 1020–1000 B.C.) The "Sealand" or Chaldea, referrers to the southern coastal area of Sumer.

The Assyrians meanwhile had defeated the kings of Mitanni, first Shattuara I, then Wasashatta. This enabled them for a time to incorporate all Mesopotamia into their empire. Although in later struggles they lost large parts to the Hittites

The Libyans, the Lebu/Libu and the Meshwesh - titled chiefs of the Meshwesh, Lords of Bubastis, (usually though to be Libyan in origin, however sometimes though to be of Elamite origin), had already, several generations before the time of Ramesses III, immigrated into the Egyptian Delta. They apparently had a sort of local autonomy, and their own hereditary chiefs. 

Over time, the Libyans power had grown such that soon after the death of Pharaoh Ramesses III, some of his successors were apparently compelled to share power with a Libyan general named Sheshong, who apparently was Lord of Bubastis and also titled Great Chief of Meshwesh. He seems to have been related by marriage to the Ramesside dynasty (either his grandmother was also mother of a king, or his aunt had married a king).

 

 

David was king and he had established his capital in Jerusalem. David is now dead, and his son Solomon is king.

Under David's son "Solomon" (922 B.C.), Israel became a thriving commercial power; numerous impressive buildings were erected, including the magnificent Temple (the symbol of the religious and political unity of Israel); a large harem of foreign princesses was acquired for Solomon, these marriages served the purpose of sealing relations with other states. The country had been divided into 12 districts for administrative, supply, and taxation purposes.

But foreign cults that had been setup to serve the King's foreign wives - and foreign traders, now led to charges of idolatry and apostasy by religious conservatives. In the latter years of his reign, Solomon's unpopular policies, such as forced labor, led to internal discontent and rebellion. While externally the vassal cities of Damascus and Edom staged successful revolts against his rule.

By now Amorites that were Not part of Israel, seem to have formed a federated state called Aram/Arum, centered in north central Syria - these people came to be known as Aramaeans, Damascus and Edom being cities of Aram.

The central and northern tribes, called Israel in the restricted sense, were especially galled by the oppressive policies of Solomon, and soon after Solomon's death, the northern part - Israel - split off to become a separate kingdom. The united monarchy thus became the divided monarchy of Israel, with Israel (the northern kingdom) and Judah (the southern kingdom).

Jeroboam I, the first king of this "new" state of Israel, made his capital first, at Shechem, then at Tirzah. Recognizing the need for religious independence from Jerusalem, he set up official sanctuaries at Dan and Bethel - the two ends of his realm. This "new" Israel engaged in conflicts against Judah and sometimes fought jointly "with" Judah against foreign powers. At first there was great dynastic "instability" in the northern kingdom, until the ascension of king Omri ( 872 B.C.), one of its greatest kings. Under Omri an impressive building program was initiated at the capital. The city of Moab was subjugated, and amicable relations were reestablished with Judah.

 

The establishment of a  temple to the pagan god Baal (one of the main Canaanite gods), for Jezebels use. And Jezebels attempts to spread the cult of Baal, aroused great opposition on the part of the zealous Yahwists (Yahway - the Hebrew name for God), among the common people. There was also resentment at the despotic manner of Ahabs rule, which was though to have been incited by Jezebel. She and her cult were challenged by the prophet Elijah - One of Elijah's disciples Elisha, organized the slaughter of Jezebel, Ahab and the whole royal family, as well as all worshippers of Baal. This put a stop to the Baalist threat. "Jehu" Elisha's co-conspirator, and Jehoram's general, who had led this massacre, became king and established a dynasty that lasted almost a century (842–745 B.C.), the longest in the history of Israel.

 

Meanwhile, in Judah, the Baal cult introduced by Athaliah, who was the queen mother, and effective ruler for a time. Was suppressed by a revolt led by the chief priests. Athaliah was killed and her grandson Joash (Jehoash) was made king. In the following period, Judah and Israel had alternating relations of conflict and amity, and were both involved in the alternating expansion and loss of power in their relations with neighboring states.

The Aramaeans of Damascus were the main enemy. Damascus annexed much of Israel's territory, and exercised suzerainty over the rest. They also exacted a heavy tribute from Judah. However, under Jeroboam II (783–741 B.C.) in Israel and Uzziah/Azariah (783–742 B.C.) in Judah, both of whom had long reigns at the same time, the two kingdoms cooperated to achieve a period of prosperity and tranquility, unknown since Solomon's reign.

The threat of the rising Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser III, soon reversed this situation. In 734 B.C, Tiglath-pileser invaded southern Syria and the Philistine territories in Canaan, going as far as the Egyptian border.

Damascus and Israel tried to organize resistance against him, to this end, they marched against Judah to force its participation in the fight against Assyria, the Judahite king Ahaz (735–720 B.C.) instead called on Assyria for protection; In 733 Tiglath-pileser devastated Israel and forced it to surrender large territories, captives were taken and tribute had to be paid. In 732 he advanced upon Damascus, first devastating the gardens outside the city and then conquering the capital and killing the king, whom he replaced with a governor.

In 721 B.C, the Assyrian king Sargon II, laid a protracted siege on the Israeli city of Samaria. After Samaria fell, the Samarian upper class was deported to Assyria and Babylon. Samaria was repopulated with Assyrians and Babylonians.

Meanwhile Judah became a vassal state of Assyria. In about 721 B.C, after an abortive revolt against Assyrian rule by King Hoshea. What was left of the Hebrew state of Israel, was annexed outright by Assyria, and thus became an Assyrian province. As was the custom of Assyria, Israel's elite citizens, amounting to nearly 30,000 people, according to Assyrian figures, were deported to Mesopotamia and Media (Iran), and new settlers were imported from other lands. Thus, the northern kingdom of Israel ceased to exist.

 

 

Assyrian and later Babylonian rule, left the kingdom of Judah, the sole heir to the past glories of David and Solomon. King Hezekiah (715–686 B.C.), lured by promises of Egyptian aid, attempted to resist Assyria, but he was defeated and compelled to pay a crushing tribute. It was probably only the timely intervention of an epidemic, which had decimated the Assyrian army of king Sennacherib, that saved Judah from total devastation.

 

It was only the eloquent guidance of Isaiah, that restored the morale of the people. And even the weakness of Hezekiah's son Manasseh, did not bring about complete ruin. Another strong king, Josiah (640–609 B.C.), arose in time to restore the ebbing fortunes of Judah, but only for a few years. During this time, much of the ancient territory of the united Israel was brought back under the rule of his dynasty. By now, Assyria was rapidly declining in power. And in 612 B.C. its hated capital "Nineveh", was destroyed by the Medes.

 

The Assyrians

A long period of darkness separates the Middle and late Elamite periods, leaving only sources from outside of Elam (mainly Sumer) to fill-in the blanks. But in 742 B.C, a certain "Huban-nugash" is mentioned as king in Elam. By now the land appears to have been divided into separate principalities, with the central power at Susa being fairly weak. For the next 100 years, there are constant attempts by the Elamites, usually in alliance with Babylon, to stop the constant pressure of Assyrian expansion. Though at times they were successful with this policy, both militarily and diplomatically, on the whole they were forced to give way to the ever increasing power of the Assyrians. As the Assyrian army constantly whittled away at Elamite power and influence, in time these pressures resulted in the near total collapse of any meaningful government in Elam. In a series of campaigns between 692 and 639 B.C, the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal's armies utterly destroyed the capital Susa, pulling down buildings and looting, and as he himself said: He sowed the land of Elam with salt. Elam thus became an Assyrian territory.

The Medes

Meanwhile, by the mid-9th century B.C, two new groups of people appear in Elam, these are the Medes (Mada) and the Persians (Parsua), {See note below}. Of the two, the Medes were the more widespread, and from an Assyrian point of view, the more important group. The Medes were fierce warriors and skilled horse breeders, they were at first organized as independent tribes. However this changed under the tribal chief Deioces, he succeeded in uniting all of the Medes tribes into the kingdom of Media.

9th century B.C, and with ever increasing impact in the next two centuries. Groups of nomadic Caucasian warriors entered western Iran from the Eurasian plains. These were the Scythians, the Parthian's, the Parni, the Arian's and others. Dominant among these groups were the Scythians. Over time, the Scythians allied themselves with the Assyrians, and the Scythians and Assyrians together, conquered the Medes of the Caspian Sea area. However the Medes were later able to regroup and drive the Scythians out of western Asia and back into the Eurasian Steppes.

Herodotus reports, how under the king "Cyaxares" of Media (625 B.C.), the Scythians were overthrown when their kings were induced at a supper party to get so drunk, that they were then easily slain by the Medes.

After this victory, King Cyaxares reorganized the Median army into specialized units, built around spearmen, archers, and cavalry. This unified and reorganized Mede army was now a match for the Assyrians. The Medes attacked one of the important Assyrian border cities named "Arrapkha", in 615 B.C, and then surrounded the Assyrian capital of "Nineveh" in 614 B.C.

But they were unable to capture Nineveh, and instead successfully stormed the Assyrian religious capital of Ashur. Later, an alliance between Babylon and the Medes, was sealed by the marriage of Cyaxares' granddaughter, to Nebuchadrezzar II, the son of Babylonian King "Nabopolassar", this in 612 B.C. Then the attack on the Assyrian capital Nineveh was renewed, and the city fell in late August of that year. The Babylonians and the Medes, together pursued the fleeing Assyrians westward into Syria. Assyrian appeals to Egypt for help came to naught, and the last Assyrian ruler, Ashur-uballit II, disappeared from history in 609 B.C. The spoils and territories of the Assyrian Empire, were then split-up between The Babylonians and the Medes.

The Chaldeans

Meanwhile, The Sumerians {now called Chaldeans}, who inhabited the coastal area of Sumer near the Persian Gulf, had never been entirely pacified by the Assyrians.

At about 630 B.C, one "Nabopolassar" became king of these Chaldeans, and in 626 B.C, he forced the Assyrians out of Uruk and crowned himself king of Babylonia. He then began wars aimed at the destruction of Assyria. By dynastic marriage, an alliance was made with Media, the two allies then attacked and destroyed the Assyrian Empire. In 605 B.C, Nabopolassar died in Babylon.

His son Nebuchadrezzar II, then became king. Nebuchadrezzar II's interest however, was in conquest and booty. He did particular damage in Canaan, where many Hebrews were forced into Babylonian exile.

Upon his death Awil-Marduk (called Evil-Merodach in the Old Testament) became king. His policies, as well as those of the next king, his brother-in law, "Neriglissar" were the same as those of Nebuchadrezzar II, namely conquest and booty.

After the death of Neriglissar, an Aramaean from Harran named "Nabonidus" became king, the circumstances of his ascension are unknown. He made a defense treaty with Median king Astyages, as a defense against the Persians, who were becoming a growing threat under their king Cyrus II. He devoted himself to renovating old temples, taking a special interest in old inscriptions, perhaps in reverence for the ancient Amorite dynasty of Hammurabi. He also gave preference to the god Sin over the Babylonian god Marduk, thus creating powerful enemies in the Marduk priesthood.

 The Persian Conquest

For reasons unknown, Nabonidus left Babylon to reside in northern Arabia, leaving his son Belshazzar as viceroy in Babylon. Ten years later, Nabonidus returned to Babylonia because of growing opposition to his rule, no doubt incited by the Marduk priesthood. He appointed his daughter, high priestess of the Sin temple in Ur, in an apparent attempt to bypass the Marduk priesthood. With this, the priests of Marduk looked to Cyrus, hoping to have better relations with him, than they had with Nabonidus. They promised Cyrus the surrender of Babylon without a fight if he would restore their position and privileges.